International Journal of Criminology and Sociology
The International Journal of Criminology and Sociology monitors the rapidly changing interdisciplinary fields of criminology and sociology. It is a forum for the publication and discussion of theory, research, policy, and practice in the related aspects of this discipline. IJCS is a valuable resource for intellectuals dealing with the various aspects related to crime, whether its criminology, sociology, anthropology, psychology, law, economics, politics or social work. It is also of great value to professionals concerned with crime, law, criminal justice, politics, and penology.
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Determining Internal and External Risks in a Medical Center
An enterprise stores information in the cloud providing virtual storage of data as virtual memory. Cloud increases the enterprise’s ability to offer data and service delivery, however it also increases the chances of a cybersecurity threat, and cyber risks, and increases the vulnerability of the enterprise to risks. It is important for the organization to perform risk management to determine cybersecurity risks. Cybersecurity is a key need for hospitals to manage threats of all types. Healthcare is notoriously vulnerable to cyber-attacks due to the valuable nature of patient information and the lack of updated medical equipment. In this paper, we discuss medical applications in cybersecurity, AI's role in cybersecurity, and risk management in medical cybersecurity.
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Editorial Cryptocurrencies, Blockchain, and Criminology: Emerging Challenges and Opportunities - Foreword to the Special Issue
In the rapidly evolving landscape of digital finance, cryptocurrencies and blockchain technologies constitute transformative forces that have reshaped economic systems and legal frameworks globally. Characterized by their decentralized nature and potential for innovative financial solutions, these technologies offer opportunities for enhanced transparency and operational efficiency. However, they also introduce complex ethical challenges and raise critical questions about regulatory oversight and financial security, particularly in the light of some association with illicit activities (Foley et al., 2019). The articles in this special issue explore these intricate dynamics, focusing on the intersection between cryptocurrencies, blockchain technology, and criminology. Dondjio and Kazamias provide a thoughtful examination of the ethical considerations surrounding these technologies, highlighting their impact on socio-economic structures in both developed and developing contexts. Their analysis elucidates the dual nature of cryptocurrencies: as tools for liberation from traditional financial constraints and as potential enablers of criminal behavior, emphasizing the need for responsible adoption and comprehensive policy frameworks (Zhao, 2024). Building on this foundation, Sadok et al. delve into the historical and multidisciplinary perspectives that have shaped our understanding of cryptocurrencies. Their synthesis of existing literature reveals fragmented regulatory responses that often fail to address the unique challenges posed by digital currencies. They advocate for a balanced approach that acknowledges both the financial innovations provided by cryptocurrencies and the accompanying risks of illicit transactions and exploitation (Dhali et al., 2023). The regulatory landscape is further explored by Nastri, who critiques the current EU regulations on crypto-assets for the piecemeal approach and lack of cohesive strategy. By highlighting recent legislative developments, including anti-money laundering (AML) measures, Nastri underscores the necessity of harmonizing national laws with EU directives to strengthen the framework governing cryptocurrencies and effectively address financial crimes (Zhelekhovska, 2024; Ferreira & Pereira, 2023). Moreover, Passas highlights how cryptocurrencies foster both innovation and significant financial crimes such as money laundering and fraud, similarly to other financial institutions and services. With continuing concerns about illicit transactions, it is evident that existing frameworks have not fully mitigated these risks. Passas's examination of regulatory responses establishes a foundation for constructive dialogue on how legislative measures and practical steps leveraging evolving technologies can facilitate innovation while addressing criminal risks (Schär, 2021; Huang, 2022). In a complementary fashion, Passas and Coppola explore how blockchain technology and Decentralized Autonomous Organizations (DAOs) can provide innovative solutions to ongoing challenges in corporate compliance. Their analysis is grounded on criminological theory, underscores the complexity of effectively regulating cryptocurrencies and advocates for proactive compliance systems embedded within blockchain infrastructure to address the rapid evolution of digital economies (Zhu et al., 2022; Chohan, 2021). Blue addresses the vulnerabilities that accompany cryptocurrency ownership. Findings from surveys indicate that demographic factors significantly influence who is most susceptible to financial risks within this space. Low education levels, income disparities, and diverse identities contribute to a broader understanding of vulnerability in the digital economy, calling for greater educational initiatives aimed at empowering potential users and enhancing their resilience against the pitfalls of crypto investments (Grassi et al., 2022; Ante et al., 2021). Furthermore, the work of Gjorgjev et al. illustrates how blockchain forensic techniques have emerged as crucial tools for law enforcement agencies combating cybercrime on the dark web. Their analysis illustrates a shift in the narrative surrounding cryptocurrencies—from instruments of anonymity that facilitate crimes to mechanisms that enable the tracing of criminal activities, thereby highlighting the role of technology in both perpetrating and preventing illicit actions (Rossi et al., 2022; Kshetri, 2023). In short, this collection of articles reflects the multifaceted relationship between cryptocurrencies, blockchain technology, and criminology. It captures the ongoing debate surrounding the benefits and challenges presented by these innovations, thus offering invaluable perspectives and practical suggestions for policymakers, researchers, and industry professionals alike. As we continue to navigate this dynamic terrain, fostering a dialogue that balances innovation with accountability will be essential in harnessing the potential of cryptocurrencies while mitigating their risks (Brenig et al., 2023).
Special Issue - Cryptocurrencies, Blockchain, and Criminology: Emerging Challenges and Opportunities
Exploring the Spatiotemporal Evolution and Influencing Factors of Shooting Incidents in the United States
Drawing on data from the Gun Violence Archive, this study employs mathematical statistics, spatial analysis, and regression analysis to investigate the essential characteristics, spatiotemporal distribution, and influencing factors of shooting incidents in the United States from 2014 to 2023. The key findings are as follows:1) Demographically, the victims of shootings are predominantly male and older youths. Notably, indirect victimization is more prevalent among older youths, non-white youths (especially African American youths), those from higher-income households, and urban residents. 2) Temporally, there has been a rising trend in U.S. shootings over the decade from 2014 to 2023, with a pronounced increase during the pandemic period of 2019-2023. On a monthly basis, the incidence of shootings peaks from May to July. 3) Spatially, shooting incidents are largely concentrated in coastal regions, decreasing in frequency towards inland areas. Hotspots for shootings include states such as Texas, California, Louisiana, and Florida, followed by Indiana and New York.4) Various factors significantly influence the occurrence of shooting incidents, including family environment, ethnocultural context, residential conditions, business economy, and economic indicators.
Navigating Ethical Challenges in Cryptocurrency and Blockchain Technologies
The emergence of blockchain and cryptocurrency technologies has transformed digital ecosystems, introducing opportunities for innovation and efficiency alongside profound ethical challenges. This paper explores key ethical considerations in cryptocurrency and blockchain, including the decentralization of financial systems, the balance between privacy and transparency, the use of blockchain for surveillance, and the socio-economic impacts on vulnerable populations. The authors delve into the contrasting emphasis on ethical considerations for financial solutions deployed in developed and developing countries. The borderless nature of blockchain and cryptocurrencies enables decentralised international transactions while simultaneously introducing specific challenges regarding the definition of applicable law and other jurisdictional legal matters. Through a combination of literature analysis and illustrative case studies, the authors examine the complex ethical dilemmas that accompany these technologies in combination with their actual and perceived links to crime. The findings aim to provide actionable insights for policymakers, industry leaders, and researchers, fostering the responsible and equitable adoption of blockchain and cryptocurrency technologies.
Can Crypto Currencies Challenge Sovereign Currencies? A Multidisciplinary Overview of Opportunities and Risks
Considered as a niche phenomenon, a kind of technological folklore, which could disappear overnight, cryptocurrency has been the subject of few multidisciplinary analyses to understand how a series of numbers, supported by no power to impose its use, could constitute a currency? The review of the available literature reveals a state of knowledge scattered in the different disciplines that are interested in it. The objective of this article is to remedy this by aggregating essential historical, economic, legal and technological knowledge developed in the study and analysis of this technical-financial innovation. The aim is to examine the opportunities, challenges and risks of using cryptocurrencies as an alternative to sovereign currency, through a nuance between the optimism of those who see in cryptocurrencies liberation from the monetary constraints of States, and the hostility of those who see in these innovations a utopian monetary system or a lever of incitement to crime. A concluding discussion will expose the trend and some recommendations for supporting eventual implementation with the least criminogenic effect.
Generative Artificial Intelligence Systems in the Fight Against Corruption: Potential, Threats and Prospects for Ukraine
Corruption remains one of Ukraine's most pressing challenges, undermining the rule of law, hindering economic development, and eroding public trust in state institutions. In the contemporary digital transformation era, generative Artificial Intelligence (AI) systems present new opportunities for combating corruption through automated solutions for financial flow analysis, anomaly detection, and corruption risk assessment. However, deploying such technological systems raises significant legal, ethical, and technical concerns. This article analyses the potential and challenges of applying generative AI systems in Ukraine's anti-corruption policy. Through comparative analysis of international experience, the study identifies effective methods for implementing AI in Ukraine's law enforcement and governance practices, considering the country's legislative framework and political context. The research examines risks associated with AI implementation, including algorithmic manipulation, cybersecurity threats, data protection concerns, and ethical challenges. The authors propose recommendations for adapting AI technologies to Ukraine's anti-corruption efforts, including developing regulatory frameworks, introducing algorithmic accountability, implementing ethical AI standards, and strengthening international cooperation. The findings demonstrate that, with proper regulation and oversight, generative AI can enhance government transparency and reinforce the rule of law in anti-corruption efforts.
A Look at the New Developments in the European Union's Regulation on Crypto-Assets and Anti-Money Laundering
The article examines the recent developments in the European Union's regulation concerning crypto-assets. This regulation is evolving in a fragmented manner and by sectors, particularly focusing on markets and the financial sector in general, and does not have a defined perspective for a comprehensive regulation of the sector. It is a regulation that aims to introduce elements of public control over the actors in the system to regulate the markets and also in anticipation of future new instruments consisting of crypto-assets, introducing elements of public control entrusted to national authorities (notably Regulation 2023/1114 and 2022/858). Meanwhile, in order to enhance the fight against money laundering, elements of control and verification on intermediaries have been introduced as part of the AML Package (particularly with Regulation 2023/1113), imposing obligations on them and implementing control tools over end users, their identities, and their operations. National legal systems are gradually receiving these regulations and harmonizing with European Union law.
From Syndicates to Protocols: Rethinking Organized Crime in the Age of Cybercrime
This article develops the concept of cyber-mediated organized crime to capture structural transformations driven by digital infrastructures, especially cryptocurrencies. Integrating functionalist theory (AGIL), Elias’s figurational sociology, and trust theory, it reconstructs how criminal formations adapt by substituting social embeddedness with cryptographic mechanisms. Empirical domains—ransomware, darknet markets, blockchain laundering—reveal how digital actors fulfill core functions of protection, coordination, and trust under pseudonymity and decentralization. Rather than replicating traditional hierarchies, these formations emerge as adaptive social systems shaped by functional differentiation and technological affordances. Their systemic resilience, despite evolving law enforcement strategies, underscores new modes of illicit governance and contestation.
Cryptocurrencies are here to Stay! Think you aren’t Vulnerable, Think Again
Cryptocurrencies are here to stay and represent a market capitalisation of approximately $3.57T. It has been reported that over 500 million people globally own cryptocurrencies. In this paper, I discuss the vulnerabilities identified with cryptocurrency ownership including who is vulnerable and then explore the role education plays. The study described involved 745 cryptocurrency owners (including 140 non-fungible token (NFT) owners) from Australia and explores the ways in which vulnerabilities play out for various demographics. The above-mentioned research revealed that almost everyone is vulnerable when it comes to cryptocurrency and/or NFT ownership and challenges who has previously been identified as experiencing financial vulnerabilities. Demographic characteristics associated with financial vulnerabilities often includes individuals with lower education levels who are living on low incomes, who identify as female and/or Indigenous and/or for whom English is a second language. It is often assumed that anyone else who does not meet the above-mentioned characteristics are assumed to be financially capable. However, with cryptocurrency ownership almost everyone is vulnerable. Education has a role to play to help combat the risks associated with cryptocurrency and/or NFT ownership. We need educators willing to teach about cryptocurrencies and NFT ownership, storage and tax implications.
Cyber Forensic Reporting: Benefits, Elements, Process, Expert Witnesses, and Ethical Considerations
Cyber forensic reporting creates a complete and evidence-based record. Appropriate cyber forensic reporting includes the investigation process with compliance and legal evidence, analysis, findings, and actionable recommendations for legal admissibility. In healthcare, cyber forensic reporting helps improve compliance with regulations such as the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) and facilitates the detection of vulnerabilities. This paper deals with cyber forensic reporting, which includes its benefits, elements, and process; expert witnesses; and ethical considerations. Cyber forensic reporting in healthcare is introduced. Expert witnesses in healthcare cyber forensic reporting are significant. There is a need for the right experts, including experts with specialized experience and knowledge in both healthcare and digital forensics.
Blockchain Forensics - Unmasking Anonymity in Dark Web Transactions
This paper analyzes the impact of blockchain forensic techniques on combating cybercrime in the dark web. Although cryptocurrencies were originally celebrated for their decentralized and anonymous characteristics, advancements in blockchain analytics have allowed law enforcement agencies to track unlawful transactions with greater precision. This paper investigates forensic techniques including clustering, heuristic analysis, and address tagging to identify offenders involved in money laundering, drug trafficking, and ransomware transactions. This paper examines real-world case studies, including as the dismantling of Silk Road and Chainalysis's involvement in tracing illicit wallets, to illustrate the dynamic adversarial relationship between cybercriminals and law enforcement agencies. It also addresses the legal and ethical dilemmas associated with blockchain surveillance. The findings indicate that although blockchain forensics has markedly advanced cybercrime investigations, the emergence of privacy-enhancing technologies presents new challenges necessitating policy adjustments.
Students' Perceptions of Women in Policing: The Role of Media Portrayal and Representation of Policewomen
Purpose: Diversity and representation are important for organizational growth and sustainability, particularly in policing, where women are highly underrepresented. Although attitudinal research in policing is extensive, little has been done to assess factors that influence citizens’ perceptions of women in policing. This study, therefore, investigates the effects of media and film representation of women in policing on students' perceptions of the female police officer. Design/Methodology: Using a cross-sectional design, the study obtained data from 152 university students enrolled in one of the major research institutions in a southern state of the U.S. during the 2023-2024 academic year. Findings: Using a multivariate analytical approach, the study did not support the hypothesis that negative portrayals of policewomen in media significantly influence students’ perceptions. Originality: The findings of the study provide information that could be useful for improving citizens' attitudes toward women in policing and enhancing the police-citizens relationship. The manuscript offers an original contribution to the study of policing, especially as it relates to factors that influence perceptions of police officers.
Cryptocurrencies, Blockchain, and Financial Crimes
Cryptocurrencies and blockchain technology have revolutionized the financial sector, offering decentralized, secure, and efficient transaction mechanisms. However, these innovations have also introduced new challenges, particularly in the realm of financial crimes such as money laundering, illicit trade, and fraud. This paper explores the dual-use nature of cryptocurrencies, examining their potential for both financial innovation and criminal exploitation, with over $20 billion in illicit transactions recorded in 2023 (Chainalysis, 2023). By reviewing case studies, regulatory responses, and technological solutions, this paper provides a comprehensive analysis of the risks and opportunities presented by cryptocurrencies and blockchain technology. Current regulatory frameworks, such as the EU’s MiCA Regulation (2023) and FATF recommendations and guidelines, have significantly influenced cryptocurrency adoption by balancing innovation with risk mitigation. The paper concludes with actionable recommendations for enhancing regulatory frameworks, fostering international cooperation, leveraging AI and other technological advancements, and creating educational initiatives to mitigate financial crimes in the digital age.
Rethinking Crime, Harm, and Corporate Responsibility: Lessons from the Post Office Scandal
The Post Office Scandal is recognised as one of the most significant miscarriages of justice in British legal history. Using a conceptual review grounded in Zemiological theory this article explores the scandal, arguing that traditional frameworks of criminology fail to capture the full scope of corporate crime. The article begins by tracing the origins of the scandal to the flawed implementation of the Horizon IT system, examining how institutional failures by Fujitsu, the Post Office and the UK Government enabled two decades of systemic injustice. It then applies the theory of Zemiology to challenge dominant constructions of crime, highlighting how the pursuit of profit and poor corporate governance permitted a range of ontological harms to sub-postmasters. The role that inadequate safeguarding in private prosecutions played in the scandal is then considered, drawing comparison to the practices of the RSPCA. Lastly, the article considers the enduring legacy of the scandal and questions whether institutional trust can be rebuilt. The article concludes that whilst reparations and reforms have been made, the Post Office Scandal has caused irreparable damage to the integrity of trusted institutions.
Assessing the Effectiveness of Compliance Programs Through the Use of the Metaverse and Blockchain
This paper examines how blockchain technology and the Metaverse can address persistent challenges in corporate compliance, with a focus on mitigating criminogenic asymmetries—such as regulatory arbitrage and opacity in cross-border transactions—through decentralized, transparent solutions. By contrasting the U.S. and Italian legal frameworks, we highlight the limitations of retrospective compliance evaluations and propose blockchain-enabled innovations, including immutable audit trails, smart contracts for automated enforcement, and Decentralized Autonomous Organizations (DAOs) to decentralize governance and embed compliance into protocol design. The Metaverse offers a simulated environment for stress-testing compliance protocols against emerging risks, while criminological theories (e.g., global anomie, legal-illegal interfaces) contextualize regulatory gaps in digital economies. We argue that DAOs, as digital-native entities, could revolutionize compliance by replacing hierarchical oversight with algorithmic governance, though challenges like jurisdictional fragmentation and identity verification persist. The study underscores the need for adaptive regulatory frameworks to harness these technologies while balancing transparency, accountability, and privacy.
Decentralized Autonomous Organizations (DAOs)
The Evolution of Psychological and Emotional Effects of Visitation on Families of People Incarcerated in the United States
Purpose: Recent research has explored the collateral effects of incarceration on families. This study extends this research by exploring the psychological and emotional effects of visitation on family members of people incarcerated. Design: Data come from in-depth interviews with 35 participants who experienced an immediate family member’s incarceration. Transcripts of these interviews were analyzed using reflexive thematic analysis. Findings: Results of a thematic content analysis show complex harms families suffer before, during, and after visitation and identify their sources. Findings further show how families became accustomed to a custodial environment and gradually draw on informal peer support networks developed over repeated visits to prison to mitigate the negative effects of visitation. Conclusions: Policy interventions should focus on enhancing connections between incarcerated persons and their families. Policies should also prioritize respect, privacy, and meaningful engagement during visitation. Additionally, standardizing and improving the communication of rules that visitors must follow, the processes they must traverse, and the correctional officers who manage both would mitigate the psychological and emotional suffering of family members. Finally, family reunification programs should begin during incarceration to prepare individuals to engage with their families in healthy ways prior to their release and return home.
Global Warming as a Crime against Nature: Identifying the Principal Offenders
This article employs a literature-based methodology, utilising green criminology literature and case examples to examine global warming through the framework of green criminology to assess whether contributions to global warming can be considered a ‘crime against nature’ due to their extensive environmental harm. Such environmental degradation aligns with the concept of ‘ecocide’, which criminalises acts that contribute to extensive damage or loss to the Earth’s ecosystems. The analysis identifies states and corporations as principal perpetrators, highlighting how fossil fuel industries contribute to global warming through environmentally detrimental practices and climate misinformation campaigns. Simultaneously, the actions of the state, such as obstructing climate change policies and appointing industry-affiliated personnel to key regulatory positions, exacerbate the climate crisis. While individual consumer behaviours are also contributory, these actions are largely constrained by the systems that are heavily influenced by state-corporate interests. Reframing global warming as a crime against nature highlights the urgent need for legal accountability and systemic reform to address the climate crisis. Recognition of ‘ecocide’ by the International Criminal Court would enable corporate and state actors to be held accountable for their harmful contribution to global warming.